Reflective Journal Essay Example for Free

Reflective Journal Essay In our daily lives, we usually encounter statistics and deals with its essential terms. It is a branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, organization, and analysis of numerical data and with such problems as experiment design and decision making. A step by step approach with the aim to equip every student with its vital information that is needed to extend throughout the academic days with no limitation and the range should be meet in order to steadfast one’s knowledge on measurement matter, that soon will evolve to new a serious way of solving a certain problem on collecting such data and interpreting above information. Throughout this course we can distinguish descriptive statistics from an inferential statistics. We are also knowledgeable about the sources of data which is relevant in collecting and interpreting information. This program of study established an accuracy, critical thinking as well as an analysis in every student which undergo this subject, it also provide profound discipline in the basis of what we have gather should be true according from the test and observation, letting students to learn and make a hypothesis within certain problem. Bridging one idea to a new state of portion in the aim to make sense and find critical value which is vital in the study of measurement and probability. Formula serves as a guide for every learner who is in the middle of their state of mind. It has big impart in getting the summation and deviation which is require in continuing standards that is indeed needed in this course, it also brings the learner to a religious flow of a formula which is must be done in accordance with its rule. Terms or Terminology take place to instruct its meaning with its valuable method, a method that should be follows according to what explanation being expressed in a sentence or by words in order to get exact value which is unknown. Biostatistics plays an important role for every company, advertisement, education, sciences, astronomy and in the field of medicine but also for every individual who continue to contend statistics with its meaningful idea that we can assert to a decision making. Thus, statistic develop individual by its words, formula and discipline which is one of its vital role in order to be a success man. This is not easy to deal with but if you focus and believe there will be a confidence to have a good and vital relationship with this subject STATISTICS.

Motivation n Second Language Learning

Motivation n Second Language Learning It is natural that students achieve differently in the same class, learning from the same teacher. How students learn and why they achieve differently has been a field of interest among many scholars, especially in the field of second language (L2) learning. Many studies have been conducted about the different factors that affect learner variables, both cognitively and affectively. On a general basis, there are mainly three factors that contribute to the individual differences in L2 learning experience: learning styles, learning strategies and affective variables; Motivation being one of the most important issues in affective variables. (Ehrman et all, 2003) According to Wigfield (1994), motivation is based on how much the individual expect to succeed and their value of their success. Gardner defined motivation as the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal (learning the language) and favorable attitudes towards it. (Gardner, 1985) Although the theories and researches c oncerned on motivation have never been free from criticism, it is generally agreed that motivation have great impacts and influences on individual learners. Based on the classification of different types of motivation, this essay aims to explore how it affects a students learning experience, particularly in L2 learning. This essay also provides some suggestions on teaching which might provide help to the formation of a positive motivation. The different types of motivation Theories and models of motivation began to appear in the 1950s, when Gardner and Lambert proposed the Socio-Educational model of language learning, which contained two types of motivation: integrative and instrumental. (Gardner Lambert, 1959). Such model laid the ground work for further research, being developed by following scholars. Deci and Ryan (1985) distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations; the motivation inside and outside the individual. And based on Skehans (1989) four hypothesis, Ellis (1994) categorized four types of motivation: integrative motivation, instrumental motivation, resultative motivation and motivation as intrinsic interest. (Ellis, 1994) While Lambert described integrative orientation as a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group, (Lambert, 1974) Ellis (1994) emphasized that orientation and motivation are two concepts which need to be considered separately. While Orientation refers to the underlying reasons for studying an L2, i.e. the effort plus desire; motivation is the directed effort that learners make. (Ellis, 1994) In other words, integrative motivation is the desire for students to want to become part of a speech community, an important aspect of which is using the target language for social interaction. Immigrants are usually examples of people with high integrative motivations. Integrative motivation is normally considered oppose to instrumental motivation, and often believed to be more powerful in its effects than the latter. Gardner and Lambert studied English speakers learning French in Quebec and argued that integrative motivation led to greater suc cess in L2 learning. (Gardner and Lambert, 1959) Instrumental motivation developed from Skehans (1989) The Carrot and Stick Hypothesis, which originally implies external influences and incentives. (Ellis, 1994) Different from integrative motivation, which appears to be less achievable and requires longer time as well as effort; instrumental motivation is more centered on concrete goals such as a job, diploma, or the ability to read academic articles. This form of motivation is thought to be less likely to lead to overall success than integrative motivation, as the ultimate goal is more feasible. Rewards could also be seen as an instrumental motivation, which could aid the learning process to some extent. Gardner and MacIntyre (1991) reported a study for a vocabulary task in which the group of students who were offered awards did significantly better than the comparable group, although the positive effects decreased as soon as the reward stops. Generally, the effects of instrumental motivation tend to maintain for a shorter time per iod. Unless the individual pushes himself further by setting up new goals, the effect ends as soon as the goal is achieved. Despite the differences in integrative and instrumental motivation, some (Muchnick Wolfe, 1982) argued that it is impossible to separate the two in certain occasions, when students have strong motivations for both. (cited from Ellis, 1994) Resultative motivation is concerned with the relationship between motivation and achievement, which Ellis (1994) identified as interactive. Learners motivation is strongly affected by their achievement. Students who perform well in classrooms are more likely to gain confidence and to be more willing to participate. However, Gardner, Smythe and Clement (1979); suggested that while greater motivation and attitudes lead to better learning, the converse is not true (Cited from Ellis, 1994). But the vicious circle of low motivation = low achievement = lower motivation could always develop. (Ellis, 1994) Interest is a powerful psychology tool in receiving attention from students and urging them to make efforts. There are various ways that teachers could help students to develop their intrinsic interest motivation, such as welcoming students with a big smile, or introducing new activities into the classroom. The effects of motivation From the psychological perspective, motivation could also be categorized as positive and negative motivation. Positive motivation means an optimism and upbeat response towards the tasks being assigned to. Negative motivation implies unwillingness and is often companied with anxiety. Nearly all students will experience both positive and negative motivation in some level of their studies; therefore, it is important for them to understand that both positive and negative motivations could be helpful or harmful. Positive motivation It is generally believed that positive motivation leads to better results in the learning process. Students who enjoy learning a L2 or have a clear aim tend to work harder that those who have no interest. However, one of the limitations of the studies in motivation is that the main tool is normally questionnaires, which has questionably validity. There is always the possibility that students would write down what the teacher hopes them to, or what makes them look good, even if the questionnaire is confidential. Also, motivation is different from the actual effort that people make. A student could be highly-motivated judging from his questionnaire but might not have made any efforts in his studies. (Ellis, 1994) In terms of the learning process, motivation itself is not enough. It is just an urge which pushes the student work harder, which means nothing if not taken action. Adoring the teacher and enjoying the class does not necessarily imply that the student understood what he should have learned. Also, motivation is quite changeable; making it difficult to measure which against time and persistence. Besides, a positive attitude might lead students to be overly relaxed or improperly prepared and perform worse than they could have. There is a thin line between confident and arrogance. Negative motivation Negative motivation is normally associated with anxiety, unsatisfactory performance and low achievement. But it might not necessarily be like that for every one. Oller and Perkins suggested that negative motivation might be more powerful to some learners in motivating them to excel, which they referred to as Machiavellian Motivation. (Oller Perkins, 1978) I recall a similar situation from my own learning experience. When I was studying English in primary school, one of the strongest motivations that drove me to work harder was a Korean girl who used to make fun of me. I had the urge to show her that I was capable of learning the language. Although Machiavellian Motivation did not always work that way. I did not like my French teacher when I was studying French as a L2 in my university. But I was never intrigued by the idea of working hard and proving to her that I could manage to learn the language properly. Instead, I got trapped between Elliss vicious circle of low motivation = lo w achievement = lower motivation. (Ellis, 1994) Supposable Machiavellian Motivation is more likely to domain when the imaginary opponent is of the similar level. When the opponent is far more advanced than the learner himself, the idea to conquer would not easily arise, although there could always be exceptions. The formation of a positive motivation Although negative motivation may lead to positive results in the learning process, Machiavellian Motivation is quite risky which might not be suitable for all learners as well. It is generally more simple and beneficial to form a positive attitude when learning an L2. As Pintrich and Schunk (1996) indicated, motivation depends greatly on context, the people involved and specific circumstances. (cited from Ehrman et all, 2003) Motivation is never a fixed dimension; teachers could always help students to form positive motivations. Not all L2 learners have the opportunity to be integrated in a country where the target language is used as L1. However, there are other methods which teachers could use to help students form integrative motivation, such as introducing the culture, using authentic reading material, or asking students to watch foreign movies in the target language. One of the methods that my English teacher used when I was in primary school was asking us to write letters to our American pen pals. We were all deeply engaged in the activity and highly motivated by the desire to communicate with our friends on the other side of the world. Teachers could help their students to form instrumental motivation by setting up clear goals and aims. There could be little steps for beginners, and gradually help students to form the habit of setting up goals for themselves. Realistic and feasible short term goals are very helpful to students in finding their weakness and knowing where they want to be. Teachers could also encourage students to set up long term goals and set up study journals to record their progress. Motivation is always closely linked with performance. To avoid the vicious circle of low motivation = low achievement = lower motivation, (Ellis, 1994) it is necessary to form a positive motivation towards all learning process. In helping students to form a positive resultative motivation, teachers should always consider the difficult of tasks. Students could easily be depressed by their work and put in less effort or all effort when they have decided that it is too difficult for them. The instructions should also be clear so that they would understand what they are expected to do. The tasks should be deigned to suit the demand of the majority of the class, within their cognitive ability and slightly out of their reach so that they would make an effort to accomplish it. Also, how to give feedback and what type of feedback should be given to students is another important issue. An assignment all in red marks would easily discourage anyone. What the teachers could do, particularly for writing class is to have one focus each week such as future tense or pronouns and only look for mistakes in the specified area. The errors could be marked by letters or underlined and ask the students to correct them by himself. Teachers need to understand that errors are inevitable in the learning process and actually a sign that learning is taking place. (Broughton et all, 1980) In SLA theories, error analysis (EA) is a technique which aims to describe and explain the systematic nature of errors generated in the learners language which was established in the 1970s by Stephen Pit Corder. (Corder, 1967) The errors that people make reveal patterns of L2 language development and the differences between L1 and L2 acquisition. Errors provide valuable feedback to both teachers and learners regarding learner strategies and the learning progress; help the teachers to understand the students level and reflect on their own teaching methodology. They also indicate whether the students are rea dy to further their studies. Moreover, errors provide insights into the nature of SLA process. As mentioned before, interest is a powerful tool in L2 learning. To start with, teachers should always try to create a comfortable atmosphere within the classroom. A teacher with a good personality, someone who is adored by the students could make the class much more enjoyable. To boost students interest, teachers could always being new activities into the classroom. Task based learning combined with stories and games would easily attract young learners. For more advanced learners, teachers could occasionally bring culture and drama into the classroom for a change. Also, according to a study by Bachman (1964), students are more motivated when are involved in decision-making, which lead to overall productivity. (Cited from Ellis, 1994) As indicated, students will show more interest in their studies when they feel that they have made decisions. Consequently, teachers could ask for the students opinions to decide on a particular subject for their assignments. Group work also has signifi cant values in increasing students interests, providing with the students an opportunity to interact with each other and share their opinions. Small group tasks are particularly motivating as the students know that their peers are working towards the same project. (DÃ ¶rnyei, 2001) By working cooperatively, students will be urged to perform better, being a representative of their own group. Conclusions As how motivation works and the effects of motivation differ among each individual, also being influenced by many variables, the studies regarding motivation have never been free from criticism, including its classification. However, the impact and value of motivation is generally impossible to ignore. Although both positive and negative motivation could lead to higher achievement in L2 learning, students should be encouraged to form positive motivations as it is more likely to encourage success than Machiavellian Motivation. (Oller Perkins, 1978) Motivation is not an unchangeable domain; teachers could help students form motivation in all of the four categorizes identified by Ellis: integrative motivation, instrumental motivation, resultative motivation and motivation as intrinsic interest. (Ellis, 1994) Also, it is important for students to learn to control their motivation and use it in an active way; to maintain longer motivation for greater success. (Word Count: 2310)

Blue Stragglers :: essays research papers

Blue Stragglers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Scientists have recently found that odd stars known, as â€Å"blue stragglers† may be the product of collision between two, and possibly more, older stars. This may result in finding out a 50 year-old mystery of the blue stragglers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even in â€Å"dense† areas stars a typically billions, if not, trillions, of miles apart. But stars may have the occasional chance to collide in global clusters, which are dense groupings of up to a million stars wit tightly packed cores. Some global clusters are among the oldest structures in the universe, about 15 billion years old, all the stars in the clusters are known as red giants that have puffed up to there outermost atmospheres. In these clusters the presence of blue stragglers have baffled astronomers since the 1950’s. Each of these stars less than a billion years old.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Scientist recently realized that the collision of the older stars in the clusters could merge together to form one young one. Because of the stars mass a color determining the age of the star. Red being cool, blue being hot. Heavy stars burning fast, lighter stars undergoing a slow burn.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Blue stragglers appear to be formed by the collision of stars known as main sequence turnoff stars. These are stars that have reached the end of their lives and are about to become red giants. Four of the Five blue stragglers examined were just the mass the astronomers expected had two stars collided. The fifth was so much heavier than expected that Saffer, C. Rex, of Villanova University, suspects that three or more stars collided from it. When astronomers have made a computer model, and one scenario is that a lighter star crashes into a heavier one at 500,000 miles per hour, leaving behind a huge wake. Then buries itself at the core of the larger star, setting up massive shock waves on the star’s surface. The newly formed, combined star can take anywhere from hundered of thousands of years to ten million years to settle down into a new, stable star.

Structure of American and California Governments :: essays research papers

The United States of America is one of the most powerful nation-states in the world today. The framers of the American Constitution spent a great deal of time and effort into making sure this power wasn’t too centralized in one aspect of the government. They created three branches of government to help maintain a checks and balance system. In this paper I will discuss these three branches, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial, for both the state and federal level. The legislative branch of America helps create the laws or legislation. Ideally, it works to create a society that is safe for all members. The State of California like the federal government has a bicameral legislature, in other words, composed of two chambers. The upper chamber is called the senate, while the lower is called the assembly. A unique process for the state level is that it allows for the initiative. This process circumvents the state congress and can create laws without their aide. In the state of California, every ten years, following a US census, which collects demographic information, state legislators draw redistricting plans for itself, California seats in the US House of Representatives, and the State Board of Equalization. There have been attempts to create a â€Å"non-partisan† redistricting commission, but this has been turned down by voters numerous times. Proposition 14, 39, 118, and 119 were all turned down by voters to create a non-partisan district ing commission. Every decade a large portion of the state congress’s energy is spent on redistricting. In fact, two of the last four censuses, Supreme Court has had to step in to break a deadlock. In 1970, Ronald Reagan, a Republican, vetoed all together the Democratic redistricting plan. The Supreme Court had to step in and created its own plans for California to follow. Then in 1981, Democrats proposed redistricting as well as congressional delegation redistricting. The Republicans stopped this by adding referendums to the state ballot. Because it was too close to elections though, Supreme Court overturned these referendums in 1982. In 1984, they officially passed the new redistricting plan which was very similar to the original plans. In 1990, Governor Pete Wilson, a Republican, could not agree with a predominantly Democratic state legislature. The United States Supreme Court again had to step in and make independent plans. They created a system that moved two assembly districts into each senate district, otherwise known as a â€Å"nested† system.

The Shipping News Essay -- Shipping News Essays

The Shipping News Just as Newfoundlanders have to confront the sea, survive it, so people have to face life’s traumas and find the will to go on. To what extent is Proulx saying people must ‘weather the storms’ of life and reconcile the past with the future? To face life’s storms is not to reconcile the past with the future, meaning to be happy with it, but to confront the past, conquer it, and then accept it. Acceptance in this instance, meaning to acknowledge the past, and acknowledge that it cannot be changed. It does not need to be understood, simply recognised as something that has happened. In acceptance, feelings of anger, regret and guilt are dissipated. These are the steps that are to be taken in order to cope, â€Å"weather the storms† of life and move forward. All of the characters in the novel have to cope with their lives, some of which are more difficult than others. Quoyle had many traumatic events in his life, and until he went to Newfoundland he was not coping with them. It was through help from others that he could confront, conquer and accept his past to start truly coping with life. Other characters, including Wavey and Agnis also have to confront, conquer and accept their pasts to cope and get on with life. Although it is not a matter of life and death as to whether the characters cope with life, they will have to face it eventually. Newfoundlanders undertake this idea, and learn how to confront, conquer and accept what happens in their lives. Wavey has her own past to confront and accept. Throughout the novel and her development of the relationship with Quoyle, she has to learn to trust again after her husband’s treatment of her, and accept his death. She did this through her relationship with Quoyle, by learning to develop a mutually open and trusting relationship. Their trust was developed but a sharing of common painful experiences with their spouses, in a safe and comfortable environment. Wavey was able to share her secrets with Quoyle, because he was able to share his with her first. â€Å"The way Quoyle talked of his love, but never the woman? Could pull out one from her own skein of secrets.† (Pg 307) Wavey’s trust enables her to accept her husband’s behaviour towards her and his death, so she can move forward in her life. Another example of a trusting relationship that is formed is one with Agnis and the new Quoyle fam... ...t them. Nutbeem shows his ability to do this after his boat has been destroyed at his farewell party â€Å"’At least you can smile about it.’ Dennis, half smiling to himself. ‘If I didn’t I’d go round the twist, wouldn’t I? No, I’ve decided to smile, forget and fly to Brazil.’† (Pg 268.) Instead of getting upset and trying hopelessly to fix the boat, Nutbeem accepts what has happened, and finds another way around it. Jack displays his acceptance of his life, is shown in the way he goes out on his boat and fishes everyday, even though his grandfather, father and eldest son all died at sea. To reconcile with the past is to forgive, and be contented with it. To accept the past is acknowledge its existence, and the inability to change its facts. Quoyle, through developing new relationships in Newfoundland and discovering his family history, is able to move forward by confronting, conquering and accepting his own past. This is also been reflected in Wavey’s life. Through her relationship with Quoyle she has developed the ability to trust and love again. Going back to Newfoundland enabled Agnis to confront her familial demons, and so to accept her past and move forward into the future.

Physioex 9 Exercise 6 Notes

PhysioEX notes Autorhythmicity- heart’s ability to trigger its own contractions Phase O- a lot like depolarization in neuronal action potentials. Sodium channels open, increase of sodium INTO cell. Phase 1- sodium channels close, potassium channels close, decrease in potassium and sodium. Calcium channels open, increase of calcium into cell. Phase 2- Plateau phase, membrane still depolarized (contract). Potassium channels closed, L-type calcium channels stay open. Lasts 0. 2 seconds/200 milliseconds.Phase 3- second set of potassium channels open, potassium decrease. Failing membrane potential cause calcium channels to close, calcium decrease to cell. Membrane repolarizes to resting potential. Phase 4- resting membrane potential is reached until next depolarization from neighboring cardiac pacemaker cells. Total cardiac AP last 0. 25-0. 3 seconds or 250-300 milliseconds Wave Summation- occurs when a skeletal muscle is stimulated with such frequency that muscle twitches overlap and result in a stronger contraction than a single muscle twitch.When enough of these twitches occur at a frequent rate, muscle reaches fused tetanus, or smooth movement. Individual twitches cannot be distinguished. Tetanus occurs in skeletal muscle because skeletal muscle has a relatively short absolute refractory period(a period during which APs cannot be generated no matter how strong the stimulus). Cardiac muscles has a relatively long refractory perios and is thus incapable of wave summation. Cardiac muscle is incapable of reacting to any stimulus before middle of phase 3 and will not respond to a normal cardiac stimulus efore phase 4. Absolute refractory period- time between the beginning of the cardiac AP and middle of phase 3. Relative refractory period- time between absolute refractory period and phase 4. Total refractory period = 200-250 milliseconds. Almost as long as the contraction of the cardiac muscle. Vagus Nerve Stimulation The autonomic nervous system has two branc hes: Sympathetic- fight or flight Parasympathetic- resting and digesting At rest, parasympathetic is more active. Sympathetic is more active when needed, during exercise or confronting danger. Read Renal System Physiology PhysioexBoth supply nerve impulses to the heart. Sympathetic stimulation increases rate and force of contraction. Parasympathetic stimulation decreases rate without changing force of contraction. Vagus nerve carries signal to heart (cranial nerve X). Excessive vagal stimulation causes heart to stop beating. Ventricles will start beating after short time. Resumption of heartbeat is called Vagal Escape. Result of sympathetic reflexes or initiation of rhythim by Purkinje fibers. SA node is cluster of autorhythimic cardiac cells in right atrium. SA has fastest rate of spontaneous depolarization.Determineds heart rate and is referred to as pacemaker. SA node generates 100 Aps per minute. Humans are homeothermic- maintaining an internal body temperature at 35. 8 to 38. 2C regardless of outside temperature. When external temp is elevated, hypothalamus signals heat releasing mechanisms (sweat, vasodilation). In extreme external temperatures, body cannot compensat e and hyperthermia (elevated body temperature) or hypothermia(decreased body temperature) occurs. Frog is poikilothermic- internal body temperature changes with external environment temperatures.Ringer’s solution/irrigation- essential electrolytes (chloride, sodium potassium, calcium and magnesium), keeps isolated, intact heart viable. Sympathetic nerve fibers release norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) at cardiac synapses. Norepinephrine and epinephrine increase frequency of AP by binding to B1 adrenergic receptors embedded in plasma membrane of SA cells. cAMP second messenger mechanism, bing of ligand opens sodium and calcium channels, increasing rate of depolarization and shortening period of repolarization, increasing heart rate.Parasympathetic NS usually dominates; releases acetylcholine at cardiac synapses. ACH decreases frequency of AP by binding to muscarinic cholinergic receptors in plasmas membrane of SA cells. ACH indirectly opens potassium channels and closes calcium and sodium channels, decreasing rate of depolarization and decreasing heart rate. Cholinergic- chemical modifiers that inhibit, mimic or enhance action of ACH. Adrenergic- chemical modifiers that inhibit, mimic or enhance action of epinephrine. If the modifiers works like a neurotransmitter, it is an agonist.If the modifier works opposite of a neurotransmitter, it is an antagonist. Resting cell membrane favors movement of potassium more than sodium or calcium. Resting membrane potential is determined by ratio of extracellular and intracellular concentrations of potassium. Phase 0 (rapid depolarization)- sodium moves in Phase 1 (small repolarization) – sodium movement decreases Phase 2 (plateau) – Potassium movement out decreases, Calcium moves in Phase 3 (repolarization)- potassium moves out, calcium movement decreases Phase 4 (resting potential) – potassium moves out, little sodium or calcium moves inCalcium channel blockers used to treat high BP and abnormal HR. Block calcium movement in all phases of cardiac action potentials. Result- depolarization rate and force of contraction reduced. Modifiers that affect HR are chronotropic Modifiers that affect force of contraction are inotropic. Modifiers that lower HR are negative chronotropic Modifiers that increase HR are positive chronotropic Modifiers that decrease force of contraction are negative inotropic Modifiers that increase force of contraction are positive inotropic

Alcoholism And Rehabilitation

Alcoholism, also known as alcohol dependence, is unfortunately a widespread ailment which spans people of all age groups and socioeconomic levels. The health risks of this disease, and alcoholism is a disease, are as widespread as the individuals who contract it. In addition to these health risks, alcoholism is also an influencing factor in another problem plaguing societies, domestic violence. Thus, alcohol and anger create a sometimes fatal combination. As a result, rehabilitation success rates are vital in the ridding alcoholism and its negative effects from society.Alcoholism is a disease which can be described by degree. Alcohol dependence describes individuals who have developed a â€Å"maladaptive pattern† of alcohol consumption which is characterized by a developing alcohol tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or hangovers, and the inability to stop drinking. It doesn’t stop there People with alcohol dependence may progress to alcohol abuse which can significantly in terfere with their social lives, their work or their interpersonal relationships.In addition, this abuse can also cause a host of related issues including â€Å"major depression, dysthymia, mania, hypomania, panic disorder, phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, personality disorders, any drug use disorder, schizophrenia, and suicide† (Cargiulo 2007). According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), drinking up to 14 drinks in a week for men or seven drinks per week as a woman could indicate alcohol dependence. In addition, the NIAAA estimates that up to nearly 18 million Americans could be considered alcoholics (Lauer 2006).That amounts to way too many individuals who are addicted to a drug that is both physically and mentally harmful, not to mention the effects on society as a whole. Despite the many mental and physiological problems that are associated with alcoholism, some of the most frightening are the health problems associated with the brai n. Evidence exists that shows the damage that alcohol consumption does to the brain. Brain imaging studies have revealed that people with alcoholism have significant differences in parts of their brains than those without alcoholism.The brain volume is reduced in alcoholics as well as the blood flow to the brain. The reduced blood flow has been linked to a lowering of inhibitions and memory, impaired cognitive function in general and even damage to the corpus callosum (Cargiulo 2007). Thus, alcoholism can directly translate to serious problems with the mind. These problems can lead to long term brain damage. Lesions in the brain form in those with long term patterns of alcohol abuse. This can translate into Korsakoff’s disease which is characterized by motor impairment and thinking impairments which can affect a person’s ability to care for himself.In the end, the individual may have to be cared for institutionally. Alcohol affects the neurotransmitters in the brain. A s the disease progresses to chronic status, the brain cells begin to adapt to the alcohol that seems to reside permanently in the brain. As a result, the brain becomes reliant on the alcohol to work. If alcohol is removed, the symptoms of withdrawal take longer and longer to subside. Ultimately, the brain tissue will rebel, in a way, and the withdrawal symptoms can be severe, even fatal. Once the cells in the brain die, they cannot be regenerated (Shoemaker 2003).These effects seem to affect males to a greater degree than females. This fact can be explained by differences in drinking patters, choice of alcoholic drinks, rate of alcohol metabolism and the protective effects of hormones such as estrogen (de Bruin, 2005) As such, alcohol dependency and abuse is three times more prominent in men as it is in women even though evidence suggests that for both genders, the numbers are underreported (Cargiulo 2007). As if the physical effects on the body were not bad enough, the behaviors of individuals who are addicted to alcohol are also quite dangerous.The drinkers find themselves to be less inhibited and more willing to engage in risky behaviors. Many of these behaviors can be characterized as aggressive and violent. In addition to the money that society has to pay for the medical care, it is also very costly to sort through all the social issues that alcoholism may create. Galvani (2004) gives several possible reasons why this risky and damaging behavior may occur in drinkers. Physiological theories argue that ethanol, the drug in alcohol increase aggression biologically.A theory known as Disinhibition Theory notes the earlier link between alcohol and cognitive function, specifically the portion of the brain mentioned above that regulates levels if inhibition. The Deviance Disavowal theory argues that the abusers use alcohol as a reason for their behavior and consciously drinks so that they can blame the alcohol for their actions. Social Learning theories explain that people will act in a way based on their experiences around others. Therefore, parents and societal expectations can lead to alcoholic abuse and abusive behaviors (Galvani, 2004).As with many ailments, more than one option for treatment exists. Many of these options can occur in conjunction with others. For years, behavior modification such as one might find in various 12 – Step Program or other similar programs have been the way of choice. These programs focus on the addicts significantly changing the way they behave in society including the people with whom they associate. Either a professional or a group of individuals led by a former addict facilitate the alcoholic’s recovery.Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), is an organization most known for its success rates for alcoholics’ recovery. It is available to anyone who desires its services. Lately increasing research evidence has found that a 12-step program affiliation is not only effective on its own, but even mo re effective along with professional, medical treatment, including residence based programs. The truth is, â€Å"Involvement with AA is consistently and positively associated with improved drinking outcomes, replicated across a large volume of studies using a variety of treatment methods† (Cloud, Zeigler and Blondell, 2004).The reason for this success is the three core items of AA: identification of self as a member, the number of steps completed, and the quantity of meetings attended (Cloud, Zeigler and Blondell, 2004). It can be a tiring process for an already worn individual. Because so many of these types of programs rely on frequent attendance by the alcoholics. One study sought to find the correlation, if any, between the duration of treatment and the level of intensity of the treatment. Moos and Moos (2003) conducted a study of 276 alcoholics who began formal treatment for alcohol abuse.These patients were involved with out-patient programs, residential programs, or a combination of the two. The average length of treatment was 20. 7 weeks, and the average intensity, or number of contacts, was 2. 8 contacts per week. These researchers first note that the individuals who had longer duration of treatment usually had less intense treatment. They found that patients who had a short treatment duration, which is considered 1-8 weeks, were more likely to abstain from alcohol than those who received no help whatsoever.If the treatment lasted for nine weeks or more, then the patient was even more likely to abstain from alcohol. This seems to suggest that the longer the treatment duration, the better the individual may respond to the treatment (Moos and Moos, 2003). However, recently the question has arisen as to whether or not recovering alcoholics must completely abstain from alcohol or not. Most programs, such as AA, or other groups perhaps affiliated with churches or in-patient and out-patient residential programs, build potential and motivation for suc cess on complete life changes.These changes includes huge behavior shifts which focus on completely eliminating alcohol. Unfortunately, many people do not seek treatment because they don’t want to completely give up the occasional beer or social glass or wine. Humphries, Weingardt, and Hoyst (2005) agree and have encouraged programs like Moderation Management which do not force individuals to part with alcoholic beverages forever. Allowing a choice of goal may be one effective way to increase the numbers of people willing to enter alcohol treatment.It is estimated that as few as 10% of individuals with alcohol use disorders attend treatment; more flexible goals may appeal to a wider range of these people. There is also evidence that therapy can move people toward choosing a realistic drinking goal for themselves (Humphries, Weingardt, and Hoyst, 2005). On one side of this debate are those that argue in favor of abstinence. They say that the disease controls the individual and that this person will definitely lose control of they are exposed to alcohol, even a small amount . (Humphries, Weingardt, and Hoyst, 2005).Never drinking again is the surest way to â€Å"cure† this disease. Alcohol recovery patients are constantly reminded that they are and always will be an alcoholic, just like a diabetic always will be a diabetic. Opponents to the abstinence-only argument argue that people and their problems with alcohol are all different with different times of drinking and different levels of drinking. The researchers use the common phrase â€Å"different strokes for different folks† in describing this philosophy. While they agree that some problems require abstinence, but they allow that other individuals could moderate their drinking and still improve.They call this a â€Å"harm-reduction orientation toward alcohol problems† which â€Å"focuses less on the amount of alcohol consumed and more on helping individuals decrease the harms rel ated to alcohol use. Although abstinence may be desirable, it is not the primary measure of successful outcomes† (Humphries, Weingardt, aned Hoyst, 2005). Some of the personal demographics of individuals who are more likely to experience success on non-abstinent programs include younger people, those with social and psychological stability, those who are regularly employed, and those who believe that they can seriously manage a moderate drinking program.However, if the patients are pregnant, experiencing liver problems, or are in the advanced stages of alcoholism, they may be forced to consider only the abstinence route (Humphries, Weingardt, and Hoyst, 2005). Another reason that some people avoid seeking treatment for alcoholism is their reluctance to commit to residential or in-patient treatment. Luckily, recent studies have indicated that outpatient treatment is effective in treating alcoholic dependency. Studies of this type have reported abstinence rates of 34-59% for 6 m onths post-treatment, 48 % for 19 to 24-month post-treatment and 52% for the 49-month post-treatment mark.In Bottlende and Soyka’s study of 2005, their rates were slightly higher for the six month mark at 64% abstaining, and 14 % significantly reducing their alcohol intake with a 22% rate of serious relapse. Perhaps, if people understood that they could get good results with a outpatient program, they would be more inclined to seriously consider treatment. Additionally, alcoholics do not need lengthy terms of treatment. Perhaps a brief commitment would do the trick for many with alcohol problems.â€Å"Brief interventions targeting alcohol consumption have been found to be very effective in changing clients’ consumption levels† (Roche and Freeman, 2004). One study cited by these researchers noted that heavy drinkers were likely to reduce the amount of alcohol they consumed six and twelve months after a brief intervention as compared with similarly heavy drinkers who received no interventions whatsoever: A WHO study conducted in eight countries involving over 1600 participants found that brief interventions reduced daily alcohol consumption on average by 17% and intensity of drinking by 10%.Brief interventions also reduce the number of alcohol-related problems, health-care utilization and associated treatment costs and the number of emergency department admissions. Brief interventions are also highly cost-efficient due to the minimal cost of the intervention and the breadth of scope for prevention of more serious and more costly problems (Roche and Freeman, 2004). However, the same benefits were not noted for women or for low consumers of alcohol who occasionally drank at very hazardous levels, also known as binge drinkers.Evidence suggests that â€Å"the majority of alcohol-related harms† affect these moderate to low drinkers who binge (Roche and Freeman, 2004). This study just shows that people do react differently to alcohol. One h uge area of research in alcohol rehabilitation right now is in the area of gender. The above study mentioned that women do not receive the same level of benefits from brief interventions as men receive. This has led many researchers to fill the research gap between studies that focus on only males or on mixed genders and females. While women have a lower rate of substance abuse, those that are alcoholics suffer just as men do.In fact, women actually suffer more severe effects in some cases than men do. For example, women have more alcohol related health issues, â€Å"mental disorders, death rates, quicker addictions and greater social isolation and stigma† (Najavits, Rosier, and Nolan, 2007). This is unfortunate because women have become increasingly more addicted to alcohol at younger and younger years of age. However, studies also indicate that while in treatment, women show more rapid improvement and are more able to control impulsive behaviors that are so problematic for men (Najavits, Rosier, and Nolan, 2007).Of course, one rehabilitative method that is often overlooked in the search to rehabilitate alcoholics is the pharmacological method. While drugs are frequently use to aid in helping alcoholics avoid painful and dangerous withdrawal symptoms, others are now being marketed as treatment methods themselves. One such drug is Acamprosate which is a synthetic compound with a similar structure to that of the neurotransmitter GABA and the neuromodulator Taurine† (Scott, Figgitt, and Keam, 2005).Once the patient is detoxified, Acomprosate helps the patient maintain abstinence in the place of rehabilitation programs. This way, individuals can maintain his social and professional life. Several studies found this to be true a year after use had begun â€Å"irrespective of disease severity or the type of psychosocial support† (Scott, Figgitt, and Keam, 2005) the patient received. Also, the drug appears to pose few tolerance issues such as naus ea, diarrhea or the like. A second prescription medication is available for the treatment of alcoholism.Naltrexone has also produced very positive results in promoting abstinence among recovering alcoholics. This drug has also had several positive research trials and works better in conjunction with behavioral therapy. One way this drugs works is to result in a reduced urge to drink and negative physical side effects if it is taken in conjunction with alcohol (Rohsenow, 2004). Alcoholism is a horrible, addictive disease that leads not only to medical problems such as brain and liver problems, but also to psychological problems, social problems and even violent behavior.The disease affects individuals differently, and new approaches are always being considered to treat each sufferer. While abstinence only and residential programs seem to have prevailed in the past, the new approaches are leaning to more brief, outpatient programs and interventions that support both abstinence and mod eration when it comes to alcohol consumption. These new programs also take into account differences that result from race and gender. With hope, this disease will soon be tamed, or even eradicated, with better and better rehabilitation programs.. References Bottlender, M. & Soyka, M. (2005). Efficacy of an Intensive Outpatient Rehabilitation Program in Alcoholism: Predictors of Outcome 6 Months after Treatment. European Addiction Research 11 (3): 132-137. Cargiulo, T. (2007). Understanding the health impact of alcohol dependence. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 64: S1-S17 Cloud, RN, Ziegler, CH, & Blondell, RD. What is Alcoholics Anonymous Affiliation? Substance Use & Misuse 39(7), 2004: 1117-1136 Galvani, S. (2004). 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